Chapter 6 — Air-Launched Munitions

Air-launched munitions are a core element of modern air power. No matter how advanced a fighter aircraft may be, its actual combat capability is greatly diminished if the weapons it carries are inadequate. The Republic of Korea Air Force operates a wide range of aircraft, from the F-15K, KF-16, and F-35A to the domestically developed KF-21 Boramae, and has pursued both imports and indigenous development in order to build an air-weapons inventory suited to these platforms.

Today, South Korea’s air-launched munitions can broadly be divided into air-to-ground weapons, air-to-air missiles, precision-guided bombs, and aircraft cannon ammunition. The country is currently in a transitional phase in which imported and domestically developed weapons are gradually becoming more balanced.

6.1) TAURUS KEPD-350K — The Spearhead of South Korea’s Kill Chain

The TAURUS KEPD-350K is a long-range air-launched cruise missile developed by the German-Swedish joint venture TAURUS Systems. It is currently one of the most powerful deep-strike weapons operated by the Republic of Korea Air Force.

When the TAURUS entered operational service, South Korea became the first country in Asia to operate an air-to-ground missile with a range exceeding 500km. The missile combines terrain-reference navigation, GPS, and inertial navigation, allowing it to strike targets precisely even in GPS-jammed environments. One of its key capabilities is its tandem warhead, designed to penetrate and destroy hardened underground facilities such as North Korean tunnel complexes.

The procurement process was also notable. South Korea initially sought to acquire Lockheed Martin’s AGM-158 JASSM as a cruise missile for the F-15K. However, on June 19, 2013, the 67th Defense Acquisition Program Promotion Committee approved the procurement of the TAURUS through a negotiated contract.

On November 27, military authorities announced that a contract had been concluded to acquire 200 TAURUS missiles, with deliveries scheduled to begin in 2015 under a budget of approximately KRW 500 billion.

Another important aspect of the TAURUS acquisition was technology transfer. South Korean defense authorities placed particular value on advanced technologies incorporated into the missile, including its integrated navigation system — which is simpler than traditional TERCOM and resistant to GPS disruption — and its tandem penetrating warhead.

These transferred technologies later became an important technological foundation for the development of South Korea’s indigenous long-range air-to-ground missile, Cheonryong.

Figure 9. Taurus Air-to-Ground Cruise Missile

6.2) Cheonryong — The Birth of a South Korean Long-Range Air-to-Ground Missile

Based in part on technologies associated with the TAURUS program, development of the Cheonryong air-to-ground missile began in 2018 under the leadership of the Agency for Defense Development. Cheonryong is intended to become a domestically developed long-range air-to-ground guided missile for integration with the KF-21 Boramae in the 2030s.

Its design draws on concepts found in both Germany’s TAURUS and the U.S. AGM-158 JASSM. It incorporates a tandem-warhead configuration similar to that of the TAURUS for bunker-busting missions, while also adopting a more advanced low-observable design concept inspired by the JASSM.

The current objective is to complete development by 2028, with full production targeted for completion by 2031.

Figure 10. Cheonryong Air-to-Ground Missile

6.3) Air-to-Air Missiles — AIM-9, AIM-120, and the Challenge of Localization

Air-to-air missiles are critical weapons directly linked to a fighter aircraft’s survivability. The Republic of Korea Air Force currently relies primarily on two major families of U.S.-made air-to-air missiles.

6.3.1) AIM-9 Sidewinder — Short-Range Air-to-Air Missile

The AIM-9 Sidewinder, developed in the United States, is an infrared-guided short-range air-to-air missile with a maximum range of approximately 7–35km, depending on the variant.

The Republic of Korea Air Force operates several variants, including the AIM-9M, AIM-9L, and AIM-9X, across aircraft such as the F-15K, KF-16, and KF-21.

The latest AIM-9X can be integrated with helmet-mounted cueing systems, providing HOBS (High Off-Boresight) capability. This allows a pilot to engage targets located well away from the aircraft’s forward axis, providing a major advantage in close-range aerial combat.

Figure 11. AIM-9 Sidewinder Air-to-Air Missile

6.3.2) AIM-120 AMRAAM — Medium-Range Air-to-Air Missile

The AIM-120 AMRAAM (Advanced Medium-Range Air-to-Air Missile) is an active-radar-guided medium-range air-to-air missile developed in the United States.

Depending on the variant, its maximum range is approximately 120–180km. The missile uses a fire-and-forget concept, employing its own radar seeker during the terminal phase so that the pilot can maneuver after launch rather than continuously guiding the missile.

Figure 12. AIM-120 AMRAAM Air-to-Air Missile

South Korea initially sought to integrate U.S.-made AIM-120 AMRAAM and AIM-9 Sidewinder missiles with the KF-21. However, U.S. export-policy restrictions and delays in technical approval caused controversy during the early stages of development.

The United States later approved integration of the two missile families, allowing the KF-21 to support four major types of air-to-air missiles.

6.3.3) Integration of Four Missiles (2 Europeans + 2 US)

1. Initial U.S. Export-License Restrictions and Delays
   • During the early development phase, South Korea intended to equip the KF-21 primarily with the AIM-120 AMRAAM and AIM-9X Sidewinder, both of which were already widely operated by the Republic of Korea Air Force.
   • However, the U.S. government did not provide the required export approvals for systems-integration technology associated with the aircraft’s AESA radar in time, citing security and policy considerations.
2. Turning to European Missiles — Meteor and IRIS-T
   • To avoid delays to the development schedule, South Korea turned to European alternatives.
   • Integration of MBDA’s Meteor and Diehl Defence’s IRIS-T was selected, and successful test launches were subsequently carried out.
3. Later U.S. Approval and a Four-Missile Integration Option
   • As KF-21 development progressed and integration of European weapons proceeded successfully, the U.S. government eventually approved the integration of the AIM-120 and AIM-9X.
   • As a result, the KF-21 gained the potential to operate four major air-to-air missile families: Meteor + IRIS-T + AMRAAM + Sidewinder

The advantages of Four-Missile Integration are:

• Greater export competitiveness: Customer countries can select either U.S. or European missile options depending on their existing inventories and security relationships.
• Greater operational flexibility: The Republic of Korea Air Force can potentially make use of existing stocks of AMRAAM and Sidewinder missiles already operated with aircraft such as the F-15K and KF-16, improving logistical efficiency.

Figure 13. Meteor and IRIS-T missiles

6.3.4) Development of Indigenous Air-to-Air Missiles

South Korea is currently developing indigenous short- and medium-range air-to-air missiles. The short-range system is being developed along lines broadly comparable to the German IRIS-T, while the medium-range program aims for capabilities comparable to Europe’s Meteor.

If these programs are successfully completed, South Korea would move closer to becoming genuinely self-reliant in air-launched weapons, including air-to-air missiles.

6.4) KGGB — The Birth of a South Korean Precision-Guided Bomb

The KGGB (Korean GPS Guided Bomb) is a domestically developed GPS-guided bomb system that converts an existing unguided free-fall bomb into a precision-guided weapon by attaching a guidance kit.

Conceptually similar to the U.S. JDAM (Joint Direct Attack Munition), the KGGB combines a conventional bomb with a GPS/inertial-navigation guidance kit and wing assembly, giving it precision-strike capability with a circular error probable measured in only a few meters.

Its greatest advantage is cost-effectiveness: rather than purchasing a completely new and expensive missile, existing conventional bombs can be converted into precision-guided weapons at considerably lower cost.

The KF-21 is expected to carry a wide range of air-to-ground weapons, including U.S.-made JDAMs and GBU-12 precision-guided bombs, the TAURUS cruise missile, the domestically developed Cheonryong long-range air-to-ground missile, and the KGGB.

The strategic significance of the KGGB extends beyond the weapon itself. It represents an important step toward reducing reliance on U.S.-supplied precision-guided bombs and establishing an independent precision-strike capability, making it one of the first major achievements in the localization of South Korea’s air-launched munitions.

Figure 14. KGGB, Korean GPS Guided Bomb

6.5) Aircraft Cannon Ammunition — 20mm and 30mm

Aircraft cannon ammunition remains relevant even in the missile age, particularly for close-range combat and ground-attack missions.

6.5.1) 20mm M61 Vulcan

The 20mm M61-series Vulcan cannon, fitted to several of South Korea’s principal fighter aircraft, is a high-rate rotary cannon capable of firing up to approximately 6,000 rounds per minute.

It is used for close-range aerial combat and close air support (CAS) missions. South Korea also produces 20mm ammunition domestically through Poongsan.

Figure 15. Vulcan Aircraft Cannon

6.5.2) 30mm Ammunition

A representative example is the M230 30mm chain gun carried by the AH-64E Apache attack helicopter. Optimized for engaging ground targets, 30mm ammunition is used during attack-helicopter missions against light armored vehicles, defensive positions, and other ground targets.

Figure 16. 30mm Ammunition for Helicopter Cannon

Overview of South Korean Air-Launched Munitions

Table 6. Key Air-Launched Munitions of South Korea

Conclusion of Chapter 6 — How the KF-21 Could Transform the Future of South Korean Air-Launched Munitions

The current state of South Korea’s air-launched munitions can be summarized as a “transition from import dependence toward indigenous production.”

Key weapons such as the TAURUS and AIM-120 remain dependent on foreign suppliers, but the development of systems such as the KGGB and Cheonryong signals the beginning of greater self-reliance in airborne weapons.

The decisive factor will be the KF-21 Boramae. The KF-21 has multiple external weapon stations capable of carrying a wide range of air-to-air missiles, air-to-ground weapons, and precision-guided bombs. It is being developed to accommodate both NATO-standard foreign weapons and South Korean weapons.

As the KF-21 progresses through future development stages and integrates weapons such as the Cheonryong, KGGB, and domestically developed air-to-air missiles, South Korea’s air-launched munition sector is expected to move gradually from dependence on imported weapons toward a much higher degree of domestic self-sufficiency.

Chapter 7 — Naval Munitions

Whoever controls the sea controls the war. Naval munitions must operate accurately under conditions fundamentally different from those faced by land-based weapons — water pressure, salinity, waves, and ocean currents — and therefore demand an exceptionally high level of precision and reliability.

To counter the persistent threat posed by North Korean submarines and the complex maritime environment of the Yellow Sea, South Sea, and East Sea, the Republic of Korea Navy has steadily developed four core categories of naval munitions: torpedoes, naval mines, naval gun ammunition, and anti-ship missiles.

In the field of torpedoes in particular, South Korea succeeded in the difficult task of achieving fully indigenous development, joining the relatively small group of countries capable of independently designing and producing torpedoes.

7.1) Torpedoes — The Decisive Weapon of Underwater Warfare

A torpedo is essentially an underwater missile that uses its own propulsion system to travel toward an enemy vessel.

The destructive power of a torpedo against a ship can be extraordinary. Even a very large warship can suffer catastrophic structural damage if a torpedo detonates beneath its hull, potentially breaking the keel and causing the vessel to sink rapidly. For this reason, the ability to independently develop torpedoes is regarded as one of the key indicators of naval technological capability.

Torpedoes are generally divided into heavyweight and lightweight torpedoes according to their size and mission.

• Heavyweight torpedoes, typically around 533mm in diameter, are primarily launched by submarines against surface ships or enemy submarines.
• Lightweight torpedoes, typically around 324mm in diameter, are anti-submarine weapons launched from surface ships, helicopters, and maritime patrol aircraft.

7.1.1) Baek Sangeo (K-731) — South Korea’s First Indigenous Heavyweight Torpedo

The Baek Sangeo entered operational service with the Republic of Korea Navy in 2003 and was South Korea’s first independently developed torpedo weapon system. The program was developed over approximately eight years by the Agency for Defense Development (ADD) and LG Precision, now LIG Nex1, with development costs of approximately KRW 30 billion.

The background to the Baek Sangeo program was particularly challenging. It was originally developed as the principal armament for the Republic of Korea Navy’s first Dolgorae-class midget submarines. When the United States declined to sell the required torpedoes, South Korea was effectively forced to pursue an indigenous solution. In other words, when importing the weapon proved impossible, South Korea decided to develop its own.

Table 7. Baek Sangeo — Main Specifications

The Baek Sangeo incorporates acoustic detection systems combining passive and active sonar with a fully digital guidance system. Unlike the SUT torpedo, which uses wire guidance, the Baek Sangeo is an advanced active-acoustic torpedo capable of independently detecting and homing in on the sound of enemy vessels without requiring continuous mid-course guidance. This provides several advantages, including the ability to engage multiple targets and the absence of speed limitations associated with continuous intermediate guidance.

The program did, however, encounter difficulties during its early development. During the first live-fire training exercise conducted by an operational unit, the magnetic fuze failed to function and the torpedo did not detonate. This was attributed not to a fundamental lack of technological capability, but to detailed adjustment errors resulting from limited operational experience. Through such trial and error, South Korea’s torpedo technology gradually matured.

Figure 17. Baek Sangeo (K-731) Torpedo

7.1.2) Cheong Sangeo (K-745) — A World-Class Indigenous Lightweight Torpedo

The Cheong Sangeo (K-745) is a lightweight torpedo developed under the leadership of the Agency for Defense Development, with participation from LIG Nex1.

The program built upon South Korea’s previous experience in jointly developing and producing the K-744 Korean lightweight torpedo, derived from the U.S. Mk 44, in cooperation with Honeywell.

Drawing on this accumulated experience, the Cheong Sangeo was developed over approximately ten years using indigenous South Korean technologies and entered operational service in 2005.

South Korea became the eighth country in the world to successfully develop an indigenous lightweight torpedo, following the United States, United Kingdom, Germany, France, Italy, China, and Japan.

Table 8. Cheong Sangeo — Main Specifications

The Cheong Sangeo uses a directional target-detection SONAR system that actively transmits sound waves to detect targets and provide precise guidance and control.

Its major components include a warhead designed to destroy double-hulled submarines with a single hit and a low-noise pump-jet propulsion system designed to improve underwater stealth.

Compared with lightweight torpedoes developed by other countries, the Cheong Sangeo offers highly competitive performance in speed, range, and operating depth, while its unit price is approximately half that of comparable foreign systems, at roughly KRW 1 billion per torpedo.

Its silver-zinc battery is another source of technological pride. South Korea reportedly became only the second country in the world to independently develop this type of torpedo power source.

The Cheong Sangeo has also achieved export success. The Philippines purchased Cheong Sangeo torpedoes for integration with its Wildcat maritime operations helicopters, with an initial export package reportedly consisting of four combat torpedoes and eight training torpedoes, valued at approximately KRW 7 billion.

Figure 18. Cheong Sangeo (K-745) Torpedo

7.1.3) Hong Sangeo (K-ASROC) — Indigenous Long-Range Anti-Submarine Guided Weapon

Hong Sangeo is an anti-submarine guided weapon system (ASROC) developed by the Republic of Korea Navy and the Agency for Defense Development (ADD). It is launched vertically from a surface vessel, after which the guided rocket flies toward the area where a submarine has been detected. Once it reaches the target area, the rocket separates from the torpedo.

The separated Cheong Sangeo lightweight torpedo descends toward the sea under a parachute, enters the water, and then uses its own seeker to detect, track, and attack an enemy submarine.

The key feature of Hong Sangeo is that it serves as a guided rocket system capable of rapidly delivering a Cheong Sangeo torpedo over long distances. This allows a surface ship to engage submarines at much greater ranges than would be possible by launching a torpedo directly from the vessel. Immediately after launch, the rocket adjusts its flight path through thrust vectoring and proceeds toward the designated target area.

Once it arrives over the target area, the torpedo is released, after which the Cheong Sangeo itself performs the underwater search, tracking, and attack.

Figure 19. Hong Sangeo (K-ASROC) Anti-Submarine Missile

7.1.4) Beom Sangeo (K-761) — The Next-Generation Heavyweight Torpedo

The Beom Sangeo was developed as a next-generation heavyweight torpedo intended to overcome the limitations of the Baek Sangeo. The K-761 Beom Sangeo is the Republic of Korea Navy’s next-generation domestically developed 533mm (21-inch) heavyweight torpedo, designed to replace both the SUT and Baek Sangeo heavyweight torpedoes.

Developed by LIG Nex1, it is a wire-guided torpedo approximately 6.5 meters long and weighing 1,619kg. Its range is reported to be approximately 50km, while its maximum speed is estimated at 55–60 knots. Wire guidance is available throughout the full engagement range.

The guidance cable uses fiber-optic technology, which provides excellent buoyancy underwater and minimizes sag caused by cable weight. This has played a decisive role in extending the torpedo’s effective guidance range.

The unit cost is approximately KRW 3.3 billion, more than three times that of the Baek Sangeo, reflecting the substantial improvement in capability and performance.

Figure 20. Beom Sangeo (K-761) Torpedo

Table 9. Evolution of South Korea’s Torpedo Development

7.2) Naval Mines — Invisible Underwater Fortresses

Naval mines are passive maritime-defense weapons deployed underwater and designed to detonate automatically when an enemy vessel makes contact with them or approaches within a specified detection range.

Because they offer extremely high effectiveness relative to their cost, mines have played decisive roles in numerous naval conflicts throughout history. The Republic of Korea Navy also operates a variety of naval mines.

Passive Mines — Contact and Influence Mines

Passive mines detonate when an enemy vessel either physically contacts them or triggers them through changes in magnetic fields, acoustic signatures, or water pressure.

South Korea domestically produces several types of passive mines, including influence mines, for the defense of strategically important straits and harbors. They can be laid using a variety of platforms, including:

• Surface ships
• Submarines
• Aircraft

Active Mines — Rising and Rocket-Propelled Types

Active mines are more advanced defensive weapons capable of detecting enemy submarines and then launching a torpedo or rocket toward the target.

Conceptually similar to the U.S. CAPTOR mine, such weapons autonomously detect and attack submarines entering the area surrounding the deployed mine.

The Republic of Korea Navy has continued strengthening its active mine capabilities in response to the North Korean submarine threat, while indigenous development efforts are also underway.

Figure 21. Passive and Active Naval Mines

7.3) Naval Gun Ammunition — The Foundation of Surface Firepower

Naval gun ammunition remains a fundamental component of surface-combatant firepower. The Republic of Korea Navy primarily operates naval guns in two major calibers: 76mm and 127mm.

7.3.1) 76mm OTO Melara Naval Gun Ammunition

The 76mm ammunition was developed in the 1960s for the Italian OTO Melara naval gun and was introduced into service with the Republic of Korea Navy in 1975.

Its high rate of fire makes the system particularly effective for air-defense missions, while it can also be used against surface and land targets.

The gun is fitted to many of the Republic of Korea Navy’s principal small and medium-sized combat vessels. From 1983 onward, the ammunition was produced domestically under license by South Korean companies, including Hyundai Wia and Poongsan.

Table 10. 76mm OTO Melara Ammunition Specification

7.3.2) 127mm Naval Gun Ammunition

127mm naval gun ammunition developed in 1968 is used with the widely operated U.S. Mk 45 series 5-inch naval gun and serves as the main-gun ammunition for destroyer-class and larger warships. The Republic of Korea Navy operates the KMk-45, a domestically produced version of the Mk 45 developed through technical cooperation and licensed production, with Hyundai Wia manufacturing and supplying the gun in South Korea.

Table 11. 127mm KMk-45 Specification

Figure 22. Naval Gun Firing and Ammunition 76mm OTO Melara, 127mm KMK-45

7.3.3) Haeseong — The Spearhead of the Republic of Korea Navy

South Korea’s Haeseong missile family reflects the Republic of Korea Navy’s growing emphasis on indigenous precision-strike capabilities. Although the Haeseong designation is used across several systems with different roles, the three best-known variants illustrate the Navy’s expanding ability to engage threats at sea and on land.

Haeseong-I was developed indigenously by South Korea as a dedicated anti-ship missile, with the Agency for Defense Development (ADD) leading the program. Haeseong-II and III took a different route, drawing on the Hyunmoo-III cruise-missile family and adapting it for surface-ship and submarine launch. This evolution extended the Navy’s missile capability from striking ships at sea to conducting precision attacks against land targets.

• Haeseong-I (SSM-700K) is South Korea’s indigenous anti-ship cruise missile. Designed for ship-to-ship combat, it flies at low altitude over the sea and uses terminal radar guidance to strike hostile surface vessels. With a reported range of around 150 km, it forms an important part of the ROK Navy’s surface-warfare capability.
• Haeseong-II is generally described in open sources as a ship-launched land-attack cruise missile. Fired from surface combatants, it is intended to strike strategic targets ashore, including command centers, missile facilities, and other high-value military infrastructure. Publicly reported range estimates up to 1,500 km, but it represents a major expansion from sea-control missions into long-range precision strike.
• Haeseong-III extends that capability beneath the surface. Commonly identified as a submarine-launched land-attack cruise missile, it gives South Korean submarines the ability to conduct long-range precision strikes while remaining concealed at sea. Open sources often associate it with the wider Hyunmoo cruise-missile family and report a range of up to roughly 1,500 km.

Table 12. Haeseong-I — Main Specifications

Haeseong-I’s extremely low-altitude sea-skimming profile is one of its most important survivability features. When a missile launched from beyond the horizon approaches only 2–5 meters above the surface, the target vessel has very little time to detect, track, and intercept it, significantly complicating defensive action.

Figure 23. Haeseong-I Anti-Ship Cruise Missile Launch

Overview of South Korean Naval Munitions

Table 13. Key Naval Munitions of South Korea

Conclusion of Chapter 7 — Achieving Self-Reliance Above and Below the Sea

The most impressive achievement of South Korea’s naval-munitions industry has been the indigenous development of torpedoes.

Beginning with the difficult experience of being unable to obtain torpedoes from the United States, South Korea ultimately became the eighth country in the world to independently develop a lightweight torpedo with the Cheong Sangeo. The program stands as one of the clearest demonstrations of the technological resilience and determination of South Korea’s defense industry.

The successful operational deployment and continued improvement of the Haeseong anti-ship missile likewise demonstrate that the Republic of Korea Navy has established an independent surface-strike capability.

Looking ahead, the completion of programs involving supersonic anti-ship missiles, precision-guided naval gun ammunition, and next-generation active naval mines could further strengthen South Korea’s ability to field a highly advanced and increasingly self-reliant naval-munitions ecosystem.

Chapter 8 — Special-Purpose Munitions

Unlike conventional small-arms or artillery ammunition, special-purpose munitions is a broad term referring to ammunition designed for specific missions. Anti-tank weapons are used to defeat enemy armored forces, mortar rounds provide infantry units with immediate indirect fire support, grenades and explosives are essential in close combat, while smoke, illumination, and non-lethal munitions expand the range of tactical options available on the battlefield.

This chapter examines the major types of special-purpose munitions operated by the South Korean military.

8.1) Anti-Tank Munitions — The Spear Against Armored Threats

North Korea operates one of the world’s largest tank forces, with approximately 4,000 tanks in service. To counter this substantial armored threat, the South Korean military maintains a variety of anti-tank weapon systems.

Hyungung — South Korea’s First Indigenous Anti-Tank Guided Missile

The Hyungung is an anti-tank guided missile developed with reference to Israel’s Spike missile family. It was designed to replace aging infantry anti-tank weapons such as the 90mm and 106mm recoilless rifles, Metis-M, and TOW.

Development began in 2007 under the leadership of the Agency for Defense Development (ADD) and was completed in 2015, with approximately KRW 150 billion invested in research and development. Production began in 2016, and the system was subsequently deployed with frontline Republic of Korea Army units and Marine Corps forces stationed on the northwestern islands.

Table 14. Hyungung — Main Specifications

Hyungung’s top-attack mode targets the upper armor of a tank, generally one of its most vulnerable areas. Even a tank with extremely heavy frontal armor can be far more vulnerable to an attack from above.

The tactical value of top-attack weapons was again demonstrated during the war in Ukraine, where Javelin missiles were widely used against Russian armored vehicles.

Compared with similar foreign systems such as Israel’s Spike and the U.S. Javelin, the Hyungung is regarded as relatively compact and lightweight while offering competitive range, penetration, optical performance, detection, and tracking capabilities. These characteristics have also strengthened its export competitiveness.

It has reportedly been exported to countries including Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates, although details of some contracts have not been publicly disclosed.

Table 15. Comparison of Anti-Tank Guided Missiles

Figure 24. Hyungung Anti-Tank Guided Missile

8.2) Mortar Ammunition — Immediate Fire Support for Infantry

Mortars are among the most basic indirect-fire weapons operated directly by infantry units. They allow infantry formations to generate their own high-angle fire without waiting for dedicated artillery support, making them particularly important in close combat.

60mm Mortar Ammunition

The 60mm mortar round is the lightest mortar ammunition used at the small-unit level. Its portability is particularly useful on the mountainous Korean Peninsula, allowing soldiers to carry the ammunition and provide immediate indirect-fire support. Poongsan produces 60mm mortar ammunition domestically.

Table 16. 60mm Mortar Ammunition Specification

81mm Mortar Ammunition

The 81mm mortar is a key element of company – and battalion-level fire support, occupying the middle ground between the lighter 60mm mortar and the heavier 120mm system. It is one of the South Korean military’s standard mortar calibers and is stockpiled and operated in large quantities.

Table 17. 81mm Mortar Ammunition Specification

120mm Mortar Ammunition

The 120mm mortar round is used by heavy mortar systems to provide battalion-level indirect fire support. In terms of range and explosive effect, modern 120mm mortar ammunition can provide substantial firepower while retaining the mobility and high-angle fire characteristics of a mortar system.

South Korea, through Poongsan, has domestically developed and produced a family of 120mm mortar ammunition for the ROK Army’s 120mm self-propelled mortar, including high-explosive, rocket-assisted high-explosive, illumination, white-phosphorus smoke, and training rounds.

Table 18. 120mm Mortar Ammunition Specification

Figure 25. 81mm Mortar

8.3) Grenades and Explosives — Infantry’s Last Resort in Close Combat

K400 — South Korea’s First Indigenous Hand Grenade

After the Korean War, the South Korean military received and adopted U.S. Army M26/M61 fragmentation grenades and M67 fragmentation grenades as standard equipment. In 1975, however, South Korea developed and standardized the K400 grenade.

The K400 was South Korea’s first domestically developed hand grenade, based on the M67 but redesigned to better suit the physique of Korean soldiers. With a total weight of 450g and approximately 130g of explosive filling, it was relatively large and heavy. Production continued until 1995, when it was replaced by the K413.

The story behind its development is particularly interesting. According to the memoirs of the late Dr. Han Pil-soon, one of the developers of the K400, researchers went to the banks of the Han River and experimented by throwing stones of different weights. They reportedly found that a stone weighing around 380g could be thrown the farthest. They then tested various shapes within that weight range and ultimately selected an apple-shaped design.

A famous anecdote holds that U.S. personnel were later surprised to see the finished grenade because it closely resembled a newly developed American grenade of the time.

K413 — South Korea’s Current Standard Hand Grenade

Developed in 1994, the K413 replaced the K400 and remains South Korea’s current standard fragmentation grenade.

Compared with the relatively large and heavy K400, the K413 was designed in a more compact form better suited to Korean soldiers, improving both throwing performance and portability.

Table 19. K400 vs. K413

Unlike the K400, which relied on an embossed steel body to generate fragments, the K413 uses tungsten cubic fragments. This allowed the grenade to become smaller and use less explosives while maintaining a comparable lethal radius.

Figure 26. K400 & K413 Hand Grenades

8.4) Smoke and Illumination Munitions — Non-Lethal Support for Combat Operations

Smoke Munitions

Smoke munitions are used on the battlefield to obscure visibility, conceal friendly movement, or interfere with enemy targeting.

The South Korean military operates smoke munitions in various colors and sizes, including training smoke grenades associated with the K413 family, such as the K416 red, K417 yellow, and K418 white smoke grenades.

Table 20. Smoke Munitions Types

Figure 27. Smoke Munitions K418, K416, K417

Illumination Rounds

During night operations, illumination rounds are essential for detecting enemy movement and supporting friendly fire.

South Korea domestically produces illumination ammunition in a wide range of calibers, from 60mm, 81mm, and 120mm mortar illumination rounds to 155mm artillery illumination shells.

Parachute illumination rounds descend slowly from several hundred meters above the ground while illuminating the battlefield for an extended period, making them particularly valuable for defensive operations at night.

Figure 28. KM195 Green Parachute Illumination Signal Flare

8.5) Non-Lethal Ammunition — Munitions Between War and Peace

Non-lethal ammunition is designed to incapacitate or suppress individuals without intentionally killing them. It is used primarily by police forces, military police, and special operations units.

Rubber Bullets

Rubber bullets are used for riot control and other non-lethal suppression missions. They can be fired from weapons similar to those used for conventional ammunition, but the projectile is made from rubber or plastic to reduce lethality. They are used by South Korean police and military police, and may also be carried by units deployed overseas on peacekeeping operations (PKO). However, because rubber projectiles can still cause fatal injuries at close range, their use is subject to strict operational rules.

Figure 29. 40mm Rubber Bullet

Flashbang / Stun Grenades

A flashbang, or stun grenade, is a non-lethal grenade designed to temporarily disorient a target through an intense flash of light and a powerful acoustic blast. South Korean special operations forces and police tactical units use them for missions such as:

• Hostage rescue
• Building entry
• Counterterrorism operations

Upon detonation, the flash intensity can reach approximately one million candela, while the sound level can reach roughly 170dB, temporarily impairing vision and hearing for several seconds.

Figure 30. KE180 Flashbang Grenade

Overview of South Korean Special-Purpose Munitions

Table 21. South Korean Special-Purpose Munitions

Chapter 8 Conclusion — Special-Purpose Munitions for a Diverse Battlefield

Special-purpose munitions provide the battlefield with tactical diversity and flexibility beyond conventional lethal firepower.

The development of the Hyungung demonstrated that South Korea had acquired a world-class domestically developed anti-tank guided weapon, while the K413 grenade symbolizes the localization of one of the most basic weapons used to enhance the combat capability of individual soldiers.

The development of non-lethal ammunition also demonstrates the South Korean military’s ability to perform a wider range of missions across the spectrum between war and peace.

Taken together, these specialized munitions provide the South Korean military with a more complete and flexible force capable of responding to a broad range of threats.